Once you have collected your evidence and thought out your approach, you will need to consider your assignment in some detail. Academic study is normally concerned with the communication of abstract ideas or concepts via a mutually understood code. This is mostly done through the use of several specific devices and mechanisms which include:

• the essay
• the dissertation
• the management report
• oral seminar presentations.

In your programme, success is measured by your ability to express yourself with clarity in these particular written and oral forms.

During your studies, you can expect to be asked to write a number of reports and papers. Inevitably, many of these will deal with fields involving the use of new and specialist concepts and language. The understanding and appropriate use of such language is only one of the difficulties you will face. Often presenting your ideas with clarity and accuracy, and supporting them with suitably academic rigour and reason is as complex a challenge as any new concepts and language you might meet.

For this guide we are focussing on two of the main structures you will be asked to submit: academic essays and reports.

Always check with your tutor the exact structure required for your assignment

Essay structure

The introduction

The introduction should:

• set the context within which this problem occurs
• define any special terms or concepts
• state how you are going to tackle the debate
• identify any particularly important issues to be resolved.

The content - presenting your case

The content of your assignment must take the reader through your view of the debate in a way that logically builds upon the argument with supporting or contradictory evidence. However, you must present the evidence for the differing sides of the argument in a continual debate of the issues. This can take place most effectively if you deal with both sides of the evidence for one issue at a time, as you move along with your debate. Presenting one complete line of argument with its evidence first, followed by the complete opposing argument with all its evidence is never as satisfactory. For one thing the debate, which is crucial, tends to be lost within a list of points that become descriptive rather than analytical. In addition, this approach involves a great deal of repetition as you inevitably duplicate discussion in order to draw out the contradictions.

The conclusion

To ensure your reader does not forget the main points of your argument, every essay should conclude by referring the reader back to the question and summarising the main arguments that have been used to address it. In addition, if possible, you should try to evaluate the contribution these arguments make to the overall development of this area of knowledge.

Always check with your tutor the exact structure required for your assignment.

Report structure

The elements you include in your reports may go a great way towards convincing your reader that the findings that you are presenting are reliable and comprehensive. However, this should not be the only reason for considering the structure of your report. A well-structured report will help you draw your conclusions from the evidence in a focussed and authoritative manner. What is more, starting to prepare a simple, standardised report can even help you steer your project/research in appropriate directions. On the next page is a structure guide which gives you an outline of the key features of a report, it is important to check with your tutor for any particular requirements or variations on this for your assignment.

A guide to the structure of a standard report

The beginning	Title page	Your name and what your report is all about.
	Acknowledgements	This is used to record your thanks to anyone who contributed to the report beyond the normal requirements of their responsibility.
	Contents page	This should list the various sections and sub-sections in the order that they appear in the report. The headings used in your contents page must match exactly those in the main body of the text. The appropriate paragraph number(s) should be written alongside. Your sections, sub-sections, paragraph headings and numbering system should be simple and consistent.
	Executive summary or abstract	This should always be on a separate page. It may be all your manager has time to read. It must, therefore, convey all the salient facts, main conclusions and recommendations.
The introduction	This is designed to set the scene for the reader. The introduction may address all or some of the following: the reason for writing the report who commissioned it - what is the name of the organisation, etc. the terms of reference sources of information on topics relating to the report limitations and difficulties faced by the report’s author/s
The middle	Presentation of findings	The main body of the text contains the main analysis, synthesis, discussion and evaluation of your investigation. The structure of your report should ensure that information is presented in a meaningful and logical sequence. A good starting point to this is to select the key themes and concepts one by one and address each. Here, for example, you may begin with a description, continue with an analysis, followed by synthesis and evaluation, and, finally, raise issues for further debate and investigation. This section constitutes the main body of the report.
	Data analysis
	Discussion
The end (Should contain some or all of the following)	Conclusions	These should link the terms of reference with your examination and findings. They should never introduce new topics, but flow naturally from your evidence and discussion
	Recommendations	These should be provided only if requested, as they are for the future. Recommendations must be specific, realistic and achievable.
	References	The reference section should contain full details of the sources of information that have been cited in the text. The list should be arranged in alphabetical order by surname. (For further details, please refer to Section 2.)
	Bibliography	The bibliography lists every source used in the preparation of your report, even although you have not quoted or cited from it. The list should be arranged in alphabetical order by surname. (For further details, please refer to Section 2.)
	Appendices	An appendix is used to hold information which supplements the key issues in the main body of the text. It prevents disruption to the smooth flow of the discussion.
	Glossary (where appropriate)	This should be included only if your report introduces the reader to specialised or technical terms. The words should be listed alphabetically.
	Index	An index is necessary only for a large report. It is designed to include a comprehensive list of entries, in alphabetical order, with their respective page numbers.

Starting to plan your assignment

This will involve a number of different skills: finding and accessing different sources of information; selecting, analysing and collating information; organising information in a coherent structure; and writing to express clearly and concisely what you feel is important. Initially you need to understand the question: what are you being asked to do; what are the key issues; what is the main purpose? This is often indicated in the key ‘action’ word(s) of the question. Definitions of some are as follows:

Account for:	Explain why something happens; give reasons for it.
Analyse :	Examine in very close detail; identify important points and chief features.
Comment on :	Identify and write about the main issues, giving your reactions based on what you have read or heard in lectures. Avoid purely personal opinion.
Compare :	Show how two or more things are similar. Indicate the relevance or consequences of these similarities.
Contrast :	Set two or more items or arguments in opposition so as to draw out differences. Indicate whether the differences are significant.
Critically evaluate :	Weigh arguments for and against something, assessing the strength of the evidence on both sides. Use criteria to guide your assessment of which opinions, theories, models or items are preferable.
Define:	Give the exact meaning of. Where relevant, show that you understand why the definition may be problematic.
Discuss:	Write about the most important aspects of the topic (probably including criticism); give arguments for and against; consider the implications of.
Distinguish:	Bring out the differences between two (possibly confusable) items.
Evaluate:	Assess the worth, importance or usefulness of something, using evidence. There will probably be cases to be made both for and against.
Examine:	Put the subject ‘under the microscope’, looking at it in detail. You may be asked to ‘critically evaluate’ as well.
Explain:	Make clear why something happens, or why something is the way it is.
Illustrate:	Make something clear and explicit, giving examples or evidence.
Interpret:	Give the meaning and relevance of data or other material presented.
Justify:	Give evidence which supports an argument or idea; show why a conclusion or decisions were made, considering objections that others might make.
Narrate:	Concentrate on saying what happened, telling it as a story.
Outline:	Give only the main points, showing the main structure.
Relate:	Show similarities and connections between two or more things.
State:	Give the main features, in very clear English (almost like a simple list, but in sentences).
Summarise :	Draw out the main points only, omitting details or examples.
To what extent:	Consider how far something is true, or contributes to a final outcome. Consider also ways in which the proposition is not true.
Trace:	Follow the order of different stages in an event or process.

Based on material from:
Cottrell, S. 2003. The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Once you have decided on your interpretation of the question the next stage involves investigating all the possible sources of information you have available, and selecting relevant material to support your answer. This will call upon the critical thinking, reading and note taking skills discussed earlier.

• When planning an assignment question, remember to:
• read the question/case carefully
• identify key terms
• identify the relevant areas of the module
• think through the implications of the question/concepts
• select relevant material from your module
• sort themes/issues into logical order
• make a plan and stick to it unless some minor changes seem necessary.

Editing and presenting your assignment

Structuring your answer requires you to focus on expressing your ideas clearly, at the same time ensuring that the discussion or debate flows smoothly.

• Although there are significant differences between an effective oral presentation and an effective written one, many of the principles involved apply to both modes:
• does it actually answer the question?
• are the arguments presented clearly?
• is the debate presented in a balanced way?
• does the line of argument flow logically?
• is the evidence used to support the argument?
• is the presentation succinct and focused or is there irrelevance or repetition?
• are the sources cited correctly and consistently and in the appropriate style for the subject area

In this section we are mostly concerned with written presentations, i.e. written reports and essays, and so when editing our draft texts we must also consider questions like:

is the text properly constructed, formal in style and tone, and has the spelling been checked?

When you have written your answer remember to proof read it. Check it for relevance, clarity of expression, structure, accuracy, spelling and grammar.

Presentation

There are formal conventions for the presentation of academic essays and reports that can add weight and respect to your studies. The way your written work is presented can operate as evidence for your case and set the tone for your studies. By adopting a recognised format for your written presentations, you are seen to operate within an established intellectual framework, which, in turn, offers reassurance to your peers about the quality and consistency of your conclusions.

If the layout, physical structure and execution are all clean, neat, well ordered and aesthetically pleasing, as well as conforming to the protocols of academic writing, then the strength of your case is reinforced. If it is not, you may provoke suspicions of sloppy and inadequate thinking and ultimately detract from the logic of your own case in an entirely unnecessary manner. You will often find presentation guidelines are provided in the assignment. If you are unclear seek help from your module tutor/coordinator.

Clarity and punctuation

To communicate your case effectively, you must present it with clarity. This is achieved by taking one argument or piece of evidence at a time, using one paragraph or more for each topic/theme. You make the line of argument clearer by indicating the main subject of that paragraph with the opening sentence. Similarly, you can sum up the main idea of the paragraph with a sentence that links to the next paragraph topic. You can help the reader/listener through your text by using words and short phrases to signal connections and the direction of the argument: for example, in contrast; moreover; nevertheless; in addition; furthermore.

Clarity of meaning also comes from correct sentence construction and punctuation.

Spellcheckers

With the spellchecker incorporated within word-processing software, there is no excuse for poor spelling. But you must remember to use it and to use it properly. You also need to read the text for correct words, as you may use proper but incorrect words that will not be recognised by the spellchecker as a mistake; for example, ‘waited’ instead of ‘waiter’, or ‘form’ instead of ‘from’. If the wrong word is used because of a misspelling, the meaning is changed and the evidence is flawed. For example, there is a difference in meaning between the word ‘complement’ and ‘compliment’ and between ‘principle’ and ‘principal’. If the wrong word is used then the argument may be unclear or worse still, false. In either case your argument and integrity are undermined and your case lost.

There are a number of words which are commonly misspelt. You should attempt to recognise these and check the correct usage of words whenever you are uncertain. Please also be sure to use British and not US spellings (i.e. ‘flavour’ rather than ‘flavor’). When in doubt - use your dictionary and check that your spellchecker is set to English ( UK).

Classic mistakes when tackling assignments

Beware! A number of common but easily avoidable mistakes are made regularly by students in assignments.

 

Mistake	Things to avoid
Misunderstanding the question	Failing to recognise key terms.
Poor analysis of the problem	Not taking an objective position. Not selecting the relevant material. Not using critical analysis and argument. Not properly questioning/analysing the issues.
Not relating your module outcomes and the key issues of the module to the assignment	Not demonstrating knowledge of the module. Not using evidence from your module or module materials to support your argument. Not demonstrating an ability to use key ideas and terms.
Failing to construct a proper argument	Not using the facts as evidence to support your argument. Not attempting to offer contradictory, or even differing interpretations of the evidence. Failing to draw together all the strands of your argument together with a relevant conclusion.

 

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